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The economy was increasingly becoming central to urban-planning solutions. Growing industrialization had led to a new influx of people into cities. Born of the Industrial Revolution, they had lapsed into less enticing places.
Pedestrians are protected even from inclement weather because all the streets have sidewalks, and all these sidewalks are covered in glass, to protect pedestrians from the rain without depriving them of light, and by moveable canvas, to shield them from heat. Some streets, in particular those that run between the big depot storehouses, are completely covered, as are all the street crossings. Concern for safety is so strong that it has led to the construction of covered shelters a certain distance apart on both sides of the street, under which the omnibuses stop, so that people can get on or off without having to fear either rain or mud. And so you see, my friend, that you can travel throughout the city of Icara by carriage if you are in a hurry, through gardens if it is good weather, and under arcades when the weather is inclement, without ever needing a parasol or an umbrella, and with no fears; on the other hand, the thousands of accidents and misfortunes that overwhelm the people of Paris and London every year point an accusing finger at the shameful impotence or barbaric indifference of those governments.
Extract from Travels in Icaria by Etienne Cabet (1845), translated by Leslie J Roberts
Dark and insalubrious, cities were accused of spreading evils of a physical and moral nature: everything from alcoholism to cholera. Utopian thinkers came up with a range of projects designed to create new communities that were economically viable, socially progressive and clean.
"When we are victorious on a world scale I think we shall use gold for the purpose of building public lavatories in the streets of some of the largest cities of the world. This would be the most "just" and most educational way of utilizing gold for the benefit of these generations which have not forgotten how, for the sake of gold, ten million men were killed and thirty million maimed in the "great war for freedom", the war of 1914-18..."
Extract from Lenin's Importance of Gold now and after the Complete Victory of Socialism, probably inspired by Thomas More's Utopia, in which the author suggests using precious metals to make chamber pots and spittoons.
Drawing on some of the tenets of More's Utopia, the likes of Saint-Simon, Robert Owen, Charles Fourier, Etienne Cabet and Philippe Buchez began seeking ways to help the working classes achieve fulfillment, both physically and morally.
A number of initiatives were launched, all of which alas encountered no more than mitigated success. The Godin Familistère, named after its developer, a disciple of Fourier turned stove maker, can still be seen today. The undertaking remained a cooperative until 1968 and is still used as housing. Other utopian colonies, especially those set up on American soil, were less fortunate, rarely outliving the first squabbles between members of the community...
In 1773, Louis XV commissioned the architect Claude-Nicolas Ledoux to build the Arc-et-Senans saltworks in a bid to modernize the area's obsolete facilities. In addition to the saltworks itself, Ledoux provided plans for the neighboring town of Chaux.
Unlike the saltworks, the town was never built, largely because the saltworks proved less productive than expected, yet Ledoux designed all manner of buildings necessary to social and domestic life, including a covered market, public baths, church, gymnasium, boating area, schools, university, hospice, workshops, convalescent home and licensed brothel. The utopian values inherent in his plans are reflected in the absence of a prison: such an ideal society would not produce criminals!
New Harmony was the name given to a community devised by Robert Owen, the father of utopian socialism.
After successfully managing mills in the UK, where he promoted a social policy ahead of its time, Owen began to theorize on a utopian society based on cooperation. In 1825, he bought a community in the United States to put his ideas into practice.
His design involved the construction of a square-shaped town spanning 330 meters along each wall, able to hold 2,000 people. It included dwelling houses, dormitories for children and unmarried folk, baths, refectories, kitchens, public facilities for education, sports and culture, and gardens. Buildings would be heated, ventilated and well lit. The focus was to be on community life. New Harmony was eventually abandoned after four years of human and financial endeavor.